A Deeper Understanding of L2 Vocabulary Learning and Teaching a Review Study

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• Published: 22 Dec 2018

The effectiveness of L2 vocabulary instruction: a meta-analysis

Asian-Pacific Journal of 2nd and Foreign Language Education volume three, Article number:21 (2018) Cite this article

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Abstract

The purpose of the present meta-assay is to the investigate the overall effectiveness of L2 vocabulary instruction and to find the moderator variables affecting its effectiveness. Past defining a rigorous inclusion and exclusion criteria, a total number of 16 primary studies (N = 1008), seven published and ix Ph.D. dissertations, were included. Under Random-Effects Model, the overall effect size of (d = 0.lxxx) was observed. After conducting Q test of heterogeneity, a number of moderator variables were examined; context of instruction, publication type, age and L2 learners' proficiency level. It was found that (a) studies conducted in foreign language contexts generated larger consequence sizes than ones conducted in SL contexts.(b)intermediated learners bear witness a larger effect size than advanced and elementary students. (c) child learners were better than adult learners in Learning L2 vocabulary. (d) Published studies generated larger consequence size than doctoral dissertations. (e) employing "posters" for education L2 vocabulary items generated higher effect size than reading activities, CALL, and songs. (f) abstract words generated higher effect size than concrete ones. Possible explanations of the findings are discussed with regard to the similar meta-analyses in the field and directions for future research are proposed.

Introduction

Nowadays, nobody has reservations near the effectiveness of instructed (tutored) linguistic communication learning. In instructed second linguistic communication conquering, the learner typically focuses on some aspect of language system (Klein, 1986). Many chief studies conducted in the field of SLA provided support in favor of instructed linguistic communication learning. In the same vein, a number of meta-analyses demonstrated overall effectiveness of teaching dimensions of second languages. For case, L2 grammar acquisition (Shintani, 2015) corrective feedback (Li, 2010) and second language strategy instruction (Plonsky, 2011).

Undoubtedly, information technology is more often than not agreed that language vocabulary is an essential office of learning a second language (Fehr et al., 2012; Ko, 2012; Nation, 2001; Schmitt, 2008) and the lexicon may exist the about important language component for learners (Hamada & Koda, 2008;Yamamoto, 2013). Lexical proficiency is also crucial because the agreement of lexical acquisition in relation to its deeper, cognitive functions can atomic number 82 to increased sensation of how learners process and produce an L2 (Crossley et al., 2009). In what follows, we review a number of issues related to L2 vocabulary instruction.

Several meta-analyses have been conducted on some aspects of L2 vocabulary teaching. Huang (2010) conducted a systematic statistical synthesis of the effects of output stimulus tasks on L2 incidental vocabulary learning. A total of 12 studies were included in this meta-assay. Results showed that language learners gained more do good from using output stimulus tasks to acquire vocabulary than those who only read a text. For these 16 studies, the mean outcome size was 1.39 (SE = .07).

Given the fuzziness of the variables affecting L2 vocabulary learning and in order to gain a more reliable picture show of what factors actually impact l2 vocabulary didactics, conducting a quantitative meta-assay is justified. Because meta-analysis is a standard, well-grounded statistical procedure for combining the evidence from independent studies that accost the same research hypothesis (Normand, 1999). A meta-assay has three advantages. First, it provides inquiry findings in a sophisticated fashion, which differs from findings represented in statistical significance. Second, it is able to detect effects that are obscure in narrative summaries of findings. Tertiary, it provides a systematic approach to analyzing information from a large number of inquiry findings (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001).

Literature review

In this section, we first review 2 distinct approaches to L2 vocabulary teaching and critically discuss the empirical studies related to these theoretical underpinnings. Then, we discuss the effects of a number of input and output-based tasks and activities on L2 vocabulary learning. Finally, the related meta-analyses volition be subject area to critical review.

Many vocabulary learning theories separate vocabulary study into two singled-out approaches: explicit vocabulary learning and implicit vocabulary learning (Hulstijin, 2001; Nassaji, 2003). Incidental vocabulary learning is "learning without an intent to learn, or as the learning of ane affair, for example vocabulary, when the educatee's main objective is to do something else (Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001, p. 10).

Hulstijn (2001) suggested that it "is the quality and frequency of the information processing activities (i.e., elaborations on aspects of a word's form and meaning, plus rehearsal) that determine retentiveness of new data" (p. 275). However, the number of new words learned incidentally is relatively small compared to the number of words that can be learned intentionally (Hulstijn, 1992). Even with the use of a lexicon and the inferring strategy, incidental vocabulary learning tends to be incremental and slow (Hulstijn, 1992).

Nonetheless, incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition prototype has not been free of criticisms: for instance, Paribakht and Wesche (1999) contend that it works for much advanced vocabulary acquisition. Moreover, they are of the belief that the process of incidental vocabulary conquering is wearisome, often misguided, and seemingly haphazard, producing differential outcomes for different learners, word types, and contexts.

In intentional learning, on the other mitt, learners endeavor to commit new information to retention by using strategies, such as mnemonic devices (Paradis, 1994). In other words, intentional learning is a learning vocabulary out of context past using, for instance, word lists or give-and-take cards. I body of research employing the intentional learning model is the keyword method (see east.thou. Ellis & Beaton, 1993). This technique involves the creation of a mediating give-and-take that is meant to facilitate retentivity of a target word by allowing the learner to develop a connectedness between the form and the meaning of the target word (Rukholm, 2011). The mediating discussion is the keyword and ideally its phonology should resemble the class of the target word while as well allowing the learner to associate the target give-and-take with a visual representation of the keyword.

Furthermore, memory rates under intentional learning are on boilerplate, much higher than under incidental conditions (Hulstijn, 2003). The findings of Elgort (2010) provided evidence that deliberate learning triggered the acquisition of representational and functional aspects of vocabulary cognition. The benefits of vocabulary-list learning are to proceeds not only receptive vocabulary knowledge, but too productive vocabulary knowledge as well as to increase learners' breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge (Yamamoto, 2013). Explicit teaching results in faster vocabulary gains and a higher level of vocabulary retentivity than learning vocabulary through reading (Schmitt, 2008). Nation recommends "the deliberate learning of vocabulary using discussion cards (as one way of speeding up learners' progress towards an effective vocabulary size" (Nation 2001: 533).

The role of input and output activities

Information technology has been shown that reading is a powerful source of vocabulary acquisition for 2nd and foreign English linguistic communication learners. Research besides indicates that vocabulary knowledge contributes significantly to learners' reading comprehension (Hu & Nassaji, 2014). Moreover, several research findings (Hulstijn, 1992; Nagy, 1997; Zahar et al., 2001) supported the idea that language learners acquire 2d linguistic communication vocabulary from reading.

Recently, Bolger and Zapata (2011) hypothesized that L2 learners' processing of context and completion of reading comprehension tasks would trigger deeper processing than merely lists of words. In this study, the employ of context guided by the need to reflect this importance and common pedagogical practices (e.1000., the communicative arroyo) but not by the debate on its value as a pedagogical tool for L2 learning.

Additionally, glossing has been argued to help vocabulary learning and assist reading comprehension (Ko, 2012). A number of studies have provided testify that glosses are effective in helping learners learn new lexical items in a 2nd language (Bowles, 2004; Cheng & Good, 2009), for case, the results of (Ko, 2012) indicated that glossing had a positive effect on L2 vocabulary learning. Additionally, Zhang (2007) showed that in terms of vocabulary gains, the provision of marginal glosses was the more beneficial than the availability of dictionary and non-lexicon utilize. The results besides demonstrated that there would exist a significant difference between gloss and no-gloss groups with respect to gaining give-and-take meaning.

Research indicates that lexical inferencing, or guessing the significant of an unfamiliar word, is the principal strategy learners use in initial comprehension of unfamiliar words while reading (Paribakht, 2005; Paribakht & Wesche, 1999). A word with a derived meaning is more likely to be retained in an L2 lexical system than a discussion with a glossed significant (Nation, 2001).

Much enquiry has focused on how to enhance the effectiveness of incidental vocabulary learning in reading by using stimulus techniques such every bit output tasks, textual glosses, and retrieve-aloud activities (Min, 2008; Rott, 2004; Watanabe, 1997). On the opposite, research suggests that learning words from context while focusing on reading is an inefficient method because of the limitations inherent in deriving meanings from contextual cues (Nagy, 1997; Nation, 2001).

Meta-analyses on L2 vocabulary teaching

Several meta-analyses take been conducted on some aspects of L2 vocabulary teaching. For example, Chiu (2013) investigated the general effectiveness of L2 reckoner-assisted vocabulary educational activity, with assay of the features of treatment duration, educational level, and the use of games and the role of teachers in the CALL studies. In general, computer-assisted linguistic communication learning in L2 vocabulary was shown to have positive furnishings with a medium outcome size (d = 0.745, p = 0.000).The results of Abraham's meta-assay (2008) showed that computer-mediated glosses had an overall medium consequence on second linguistic communication reading comprehension and a large outcome on incidental vocabulary learning. Huang (2010) conducted a systematic statistical synthesis of the furnishings of output stimulus tasks on L2 incidental vocabulary learning. A total of 12 studies were included in this meta-analysis. Results showed that language learners gained more than do good from using output stimulus tasks to learn vocabulary than those who just read a text. For these 16 studies, the mean event size was 1.39 (SE = .07).

Although the meta-analyses on L2 vocabulary teaching have highly contributed to the field of instructed L2 vocabulary learning, the effectiveness of receptive L2 vocabulary learning remains a relatively nether-researched line of inquiry in the literature. Additionally, a number of contextual factors and moderator variables have rarely been investigated..

Recently, meta-analysis has been described more than broadly as a enquiry synthesis method with the aim of estimating an average association beyond studies and to explore the caste and sources of heterogeneity (Sutton & Higgs, 2008). Additionally, one of the most frequently cited reasons for conducting a meta-analysis are the increment in statistical power that it bestows a reviewer (Cohen & Becker, 2003; Card, 2012).

Admittedly, one of the bug that associated with conducting meta-analyses is the publication bias (Borenstein, et al. 2009; Carte du jour, 2012; Sutton & Higgs, 2008). Meta-analysis information technology is not without its critics particularly because of the difficulties of knowing which studies should exist included and to which population final results really apply (Sutton et al. 2000; Sutton & Higgs, 2008). If the included studies are a biased sample of all related studies, then the mean effect computed by the meta-analysis will reflect this bias (Borenstein, et al., 2010). Publication status cannot be used as a criterion for quality; and should not be used every bit a basis for inclusion or exclusion of studies (Borenstein, et al. 2009).

One manner to reduce the possible influence of publication bias is to include doctoral dissertations in a research synthesis. Equally, Light and Pillemer (1984, p. 38) betoken out, dissertations have several advantages in that they are required to be canonical by kinesthesia, thereby enhancing quality, they ofttimes contain more detailed quantitative data than journals, and they also can provide more qualitative information near the research. This report utilized a meta-analysis methodology to combine the quantitative results of primary studies identified in the existing research literature.

Purpose of the study

The primary purpose of the present study is to investigate the overall effectiveness of L2 vocabulary instruction. Second, it aims to assess the potential heterogeneity across result size measures. Third, the written report attempts to evaluate the moderator variables such as context of educational activity, publication type, the age of the participants, and the L2 learners' proficiency level on the L2 vocabulary learning, blazon of technology, word type.

Research questions

The electric current meta-analysis is aimed to address the following research questions:

1. 1.

   What is the overall effect of variables contributing to SLA vocabulary conquering?

2. 2.

   To what extent the effect sizes vary beyond studies?

3. three.

   What moderator variables bear upon the overall effectiveness of l2 vocabulary education?

Methodology

Literature search

For the purpose of data collection, documents were accessed electronically through Spider web of Scientific discipline, Academic Search Premier and Pro Quest Dissertations and theses databases. Then, Oxford Journals, Cambridge Journals, Sage Journals, and Taylor & Fransis Journals were subject to online search using the aforementioned search terms.

The second phase of study identification and retrieval stage of a meta-analytic review included: searching fundamental practical linguistics and SLA journals, Practical Linguistics, Language Awareness, Language Learning, Linguistic communication Teaching Inquiry, Mod Language Journal, RELC Journal, 2nd Linguistic communication Research, Studies in 2nd Language Acquisition, System, TESOL Quarterly.

Search terms

To recollect the articles and dissertations, a set of search terms and combination of them were employed; Foreign linguistic communication vocabulary learning/ conquering, L2 vocabulary conquering, L2 vocabulary learning, second language vocabulary learning/ acquisition, L2 vocabulary noesis, foreign linguistic communication vocabulary cognition, L2 lexical proficiency, second language vocabulary development, L2 vocabulary evolution, second linguistic communication didactics, L2 vocabulary gain, L2 vocabulary retentivity.

Inclusion criteria

The criteria stipulated for the inclusion of the studies for the current meta-analysis were as follows;

1. one)

   Dependent variable, in this meta-analysis, is second or foreign language vocabulary acquisition.

2. 2)

   Studies included for the electric current meta-analysis should be experimental or quasi-experimental. Studies included in the statistical analysis, must employ an experimental design, quasi-experimental design, or pre-post design.

3. 3)

   Eligible studies take interventions or treatments. So, the correlational studies were excluded.

4. 4)

   Eligible studies must report sufficient statistical and descriptive data for inclusion in the analysis.

5. 5)

   The current meta-analysis included both published and unpublished studies. Amongst unpublished studies, doctoral dissertations will be included in the current meta-analysis to the exclusions of the proceedings of the conferences.

6. half dozen)

   To take business relationship for the latest evolution in the field of L2 vocabulary educational activity, the studies should exist published between 2004 and May 2014. Thus, studies published before 2004 were excluded from the present meta-analysis.

7. seven)

   this study concentrated on the acquisition of "receptive vocabularies". So "productive words" was excluded from current meta-analysis.

Exclusion criteria

The criteria for exclusion of papers or dissertations are as follows:

1. 1)

   The report did not examine L2 vocabulary learning, development or retention. For example, the study may accept examined learners' perception of L2 vocabulary learning strategies.

2. 2)

   The study was a literature review, synthesis, or meta-analysis.

3. 3)

   Studies on L2 vocabulary learning of people with language impairment were excluded.

Coding the studies

The principal investigator screened all articles for inclusion. To promote consistency in the screening process, a minimum of 50% of the studies were double-screened past a trained graduate research banana. All manufactures selected for inclusion were coded and rated by the principal investigator and a graduate inquiry banana. The outcome of the coding was compared and any discrepancies resolved though discussion. The graduate banana and the lead writer coded 8 randomly selected studies and intercoder reliability was calculated through Cohen'due south Kappa (k) coefficient. The agreement rate was 98.v% and the differences were resolved through give-and-take. Coding measurement procedures and inquiry settings would enable the reviewer to appraise whether result size estimates had been affected past the selection of instrument or the location of the study (Ellis, 2010).

Later on identifying the body of research literature that meets the stipulated inclusion and exclusion criteria, a coding scheme was developed to allocate common characteristics of the studies. Final comprehensive coding scheme was included two major categories for methodological features: i) learner characteristics and 2) research design. Studies were coded for the number of participants, age of the participants, publication type, types of the target words, length of instruction, the applied science used, context of L2 study, and the proficiency level of the participants. For the nowadays meta-analysis, the coding scheme was constructed by reviewing previously published meta-analyses and based on the inquiry questions that guided the nowadays study.

Random –effects vs. stock-still effects model

Borenstein et al. (2010) pointed out that the selection of the model is critically important. In addition to affecting the computations, the model helps us to ascertain the goals of the analysis and the interpretation of the statistics. In the same style, Lau et al.(1992) recommend using random-effects(RE) analyses rather than fixed-effects (Iron) analyses considering RE analyses yield wider confidence intervals around the weighted average effect size, thereby reducing the likelihood of committing a Type I error. Perhaps most importantly, RE analyses may permit generalizations that extend across the studies included in a review, whereas FE analyses are more restrictive and only let inferences nigh estimated parameters (Cohen & Becker, 2003). Likewise, Borenstein, et al. (2009) pointed out that under the random-effects model the goal is not to estimate i true consequence, merely to guess the mean of a distribution of effects. Since each study provides information about a unlike result size, we want to be sure that all these effect sizes are represented in the summary guess.

Calculation and interpretation of the effect sizes

All the analyses (including upshot size measures) were run by using professional meta-analysis software called Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA; Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins , &Rothstein, 2005). Hunter and Schmidt (2004) believe that this software is all-purpose meta-analysis programme. At that place are unlike ways of interpreting the upshot size measures. The most commonly used one is Cohen (1998) benchmark in that he suggested the following guidelines for designating effects as small, medium, and large: d = .20 or r = .10 is considered a small-scale issue size, d = .50 or r = .30 is a medium effect size, and d = .fourscore or r = .50 is a big effect size. "The larger this value, the greater the extent to which the phenomenon under study is manifested" (Cohen, 1988, p. 10). recently, however, Oswald and Plonsky, (2010) suggested a more field- sensitive criterion for SLA inquiry. For mean differences betwixt groups, d values in the neighborhood of .40 should be considered small, .lxx medium, and 1.00 large. These estimates of (roughly) small, medium, and large effects were chosen based on their approximate correspondence to the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles, respectively, for between-group contrasts in principal and meta-analytic inquiry (Plonsky & Oswald, 2014). The present study interprets the findings based on the latter one.

Results

Approximately 2322 articles and PhD dissertations that have been published or not published between 2004 and 2014 were retrieved through first filtering. Eighty-two of these documents were selected through second filtering. Finally, 16 published articles and Ph.D. dissertations met the inclusion criteria and were included in this meta-analysis. All studies investigated the effects of different factors and variables on the acquisition of L2 receptive vocabulary. Nine of these documents were PhD dissertations and vii were published papers. The principle of "one study, one effect size" was followed as much equally possible to minimize the presence of sample size inflation and nonindependence of events. Only group contrasts, control vs. experimental groups, were gained and analyzed. Table 1 shows all the studies as well as the included studies.

Table i Descriptive event size statistics

Full size table

Descriptive data

In order to accost the overall effectiveness of L2 vocabulary education, the random-effects outcome size, Cohen'south d, of the furnishings of the treatments on L2 vocabulary instruction was examined. Effigy 1. demonstrates forest plot of standardized mean effect for overall L2 vocabulary instruction.

Fig. ane

Wood plot of standardized mean effect sizes for overall L2 vocabulary instruction

Full size image

Heterogeneity of issue sizes

The second research question asked, "To what extent the effect sizes varied across studies?" The Q examination of homogeneity of effect size was conducted based on the random-effects model of meta-analysis. It indicated that the naught hypothesis should be rejected, Q (xvi) = 59.94, p < .01, finding that effect sizes varied significantly beyond studies. The tau-squared (T ²) refers to the interpretation of the variance of consequence sizes, T ² = 0.23. It indicated sizable variation in parameter event sizes. The I ² statistic (Higgins et al. 2003) was 74.97 which indicate that a loftier proportion of the between-issue size variance reflects real differences in result sizes. Thus, the answer to the 2d enquiry question is that there is sizable variation of upshot sizes across studies. Table 2 demonstrates the Cohen 's d, upper limit and lower limit.

Table 2 the Cohen 'due south d, upper limit and lower limit

Full size table

Publication bias

If publication bias were present, the lesser of the funnel plot would show a higher concentration of studies on one side of the mean than the other. This type of distribution would reverberate the tendency for smaller studies with larger than average effect sizes, making them more probable to achieve statistical significance, to be published (Borenstein et al., 2009).

Funnel Plot (Light & Pillemer, 1984) is one of the approaches to display the relationship between event size and study size and illustrate potential evidence of publication bias. When publication bias is not present, the studies should exist distributed symmetrically effectually the average upshot size because of random sampling error. Large studies cluster around the hateful upshot size on the top and smaller studies spread across wider range most the bottom.

Figure ii demonstrates that the majority of effect sizes were equally distributed effectually the hateful, indicating the absence of publication bias. Studies with larger sample sizes appear towards the upper portion of the funnel and are relatively evenly distributed about the mean, with the graph indicating that medium and larger scale studies with medium effect sizes were well represented. Additionally, to address the 'file-drawer problem" that is characteristic of meta-analysis, Rosenthal's (1979), Fail-Safe Northward examination was conducted (using CMA software). The test showed N = i,600,000, z = 11.25464, p < 0.00000). This statistic indicated that one,600,000 studies would need to be added to the assay to yield a statistically not-pregnant result that is a big Fail-safe.

Fig. 2

Publication bias: Funnel plot to appraise publication bias

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Moderator variable analysis

Tabular array 3 delineates the characteristics of the moderator variables of the primary studies.

Table four shows the Moderator analysis: Means and Q-statistics for group contrasts of the study.

Table 3 Characteristics of the moderator variables of the main studies

Full size table

Tabular array iv Moderator analysis: Means and Q-statistics for group contrasts

Total size table

The context of L2 vocabulary didactics

Research setting can be divided into strange language (FL) and second language (SL). A foreign linguistic communication setting is one where the learner studies a language that is non the primary language of the linguistic customs. A 2d linguistic communication setting, on the other hand, is i in which the learner's target linguistic communication is the primary language of the linguistic community. A small to medium outcome (d = 0.53) for 2d linguistic communication contexts and large effect for foreign language settings (d = 0.96) were obtained. 9 and vii studies were conducted in strange language and second language contexts, respectively. The difference between foreign language and 2nd language contexts was not statistically significant (Q = 3.02, df = 1, P = 0.08).

The age of the participants

Post-obit Jeon and Yamashita (2014), All participants who were at or beneath grade half dozen (or historic period 12) were coded every bit Child and the participants who were at or older than grade seven (13 or older) were coded equally Adult .we sought to account for variation in effect size measures past investigating the influence of the age of the participants in the master studies. As shown in Table two, (d = 0.79) was observed for adult and (d = 0.85) was found for child participants. However, the differences are non statistically significant (Q = 0.47, df = one, p = 0.82).

L2 learners' proficiency level

The third moderator variable of the current meta-analysis was the impact of the participants' proficiency level on the overall effect size. To estimate it, three levels of L2 proficiency levels were coded in the included studies (elementary, intermediate, and advanced). Ten primary studies were conducted targeting intermediate l2 learners and v studies included participants in elementary level of L2 proficiency. Merely i study was washed with avant-garde L2 learners. With respect to L2 proficiency level, small outcome size (d = 0.53) was obtained for both advanced and elementary levels (d = 0.54). Nevertheless, large effect size (d = 0.95) was gained for intermediate L2 learners. However, the departure between three groups was not statistically meaning (Q = 3.46, df = two, P = 0.17).

Publication blazon

To business relationship for the variation in upshot sizes, another moderator gene, publication blazon, was examined. 7 published and nine Ph.D. dissertations were included in the present meta-analysis. Published articles generated issue size of (d = i.12), whereas, Ph.D. dissertations produced the event size of (d = 0.57). The divergence is statistically significant (Q = 4.75, df = 1, p = 0.02).

Word blazon

In order to examine the variation in effect size, another moderator variable, give-and-take type, was analyzed. This variable included; abstract words, and physical words. Since some studies did not study type of the target words in the studies, another category labeled not mentioned. The event size observed for abstract words was (d = 0.92) whereas, concrete words generated the outcome size of (d = 0.65). Statistically speaking, the difference is not meaning (Q = 0.24, df = 2, p = 0.88).

Applied science (technique) type

Four types of applied science (technique) were classified in the included studies; Computer-assisted Language learning (Phone call), poster, reading, and song. Appling "poster" generated the largest upshot size (d = 1.37, k = 1). Employing reading activities to teach target words produced (d = 1.25, k = v). CALL technology produced the outcome size of (d = 0.68, k = seven). The smallest outcome size was gained for studies that employed song to teach the target words (d = 0.47, k = 0.47). The differences, withal, are not statistically significant (Q = vii.05, df = 3, p = 0.07).

General discussion

This meta-analysis sought to decide the effectiveness of L2 vocabulary instruction and to place the moderator variables for its effectiveness. The overall upshot size for L2 vocabulary didactics was (d = 0.80). Based on Oswald and Plonsky (2010) benchmark, this issue size is medium to big. The findings indicate that L2 vocabulary instruction is an constructive instructional approach for improving L2 proficiency and should be incorporated as an integral office of L2 syllabus. The results of the present meta-analysis should be discussed considering other like meta-analyses. Equally Plonsky and Oswald (2014) suggested that meta-analysts can look to the results of other meta-analyses when explaining their finding. Chiu (2013) investigated the general effectiveness of L2 estimator-assisted vocabulary pedagogy, with assay of the features of handling elapsing, educational level, and the use of games and the part of teachers in the Phone call studies. In general, computer-assisted language learning in L2 vocabulary was shown to have positive furnishings with a medium issue size (d = 0.745, p = 0.000). The results of Abraham'southward meta-analysis (2008) showed that computer-mediated glosses had an overall medium effect on second language reading comprehension and a large consequence on incidental vocabulary learning. Huang (2010) conducted a systematic statistical synthesis of the effects of output stimulus tasks on L2 incidental vocabulary learning. A full of 12 studies were included in this meta-analysis. Results showed that linguistic communication learners gained more do good from using output stimulus tasks to learn vocabulary than those who only read a text. For these 16 studies, the mean effect size was one.39 (SE = .07).

Context

The mean effect size associated with the studies conducted in FL contexts was larger than those conducted in SL contexts, indicating that L2 vocabulary instruction was more effective in FL contexts than in SL ones (d = 0.96 vs. d = 0.53). This finding is similar to other studies. For case, Cobb (2010) meta-analysis of job-based interaction found a strong reward for studies carried out in foreign-language settings (d = 0.89 vs. 0.14 in L2 settings). Likewise, Li (2010) institute larger effect for studies conducted in strange language contexts than for studies conducted in second language contexts. Li (2010) attributes this difference to the instructional dynamics of FL contexts. We believe that 1 explanation is that teachers in FL contexts mainly tend to teach lexical items and grammatical structures whereas teachers in SL contexts might concentrate on the overall communication. We also hypothesize that linguistic communication learners in strange language contexts presumably have different objectives in language instruction. Ane of the reasons behind the departure of effect size across different contexts can be "language educational activity system orientation" (Yousefi & Biria, 2011, P.14). In addition, Liu (2007) surveyed 800 teachers of English language throughout the world and found that EFL teachers tended to focus more on linguistic forms than ESL teachers. Likewise, Won (2008) suggested that ESL and EFL classroom teachers need to consider the differences of first and 2nd linguistic communication vocabulary acquisition as well as pupil learner characteristics.

Publication bias

With respect to the effect of publication type on the variation among primary studies, it was indicated that the published studies generated more effect size than PhD dissertations and the difference was statistically significant. This finding highlights one of the big threats and concerns about conducting meta-analyses. Information technology also confirms the fact that studies with larger effect sizes requite their means to the publication more than easily than those with smaller consequence size and not-pregnant ones. We propose that in society to reduce publication bias, it is up to meta-analysts that include both published and unpublished studies including doctoral dissertations, conference proceedings, and working papers. We besides believe that L2 researchers should report the effect size in their principal studies and larger effect size should non be interpreted every bit contributing to the field more than than small outcome size measures. In order to advance our understanding of SLA processes, the researchers should written report the perceived phenomenon and justify the findings in the light of the current theories and hypotheses.

Similarly, Plonsky and Oswald (2014) believe that there is growing show of publication bias amidst L2 meta-analyses that have investigated this issue. Lee and Huang (2008) grouped and compared the effects of textual enhancement among (a) published results (non based on a dissertation; d = .55, k = eight), (b) published results based on a dissertation (d = .24, grand = 4), and (c) unpublished dissertation results (d = −.01,m = 4). In Li (2010) study, Published studies did not evidence a larger outcome than PhD dissertations; in fact, the mean result size for dissertations was larger than that yielded past published manufactures.

Proficiency level

The effect size that was obtained for intermediate learners was larger than elementary and advanced learners. This finding should be interpreted with caution. Since just one study has included the advanced learners. The larger outcome size of intermediate participants can be attributed to the fact that they have already achieved a threshold level of L2 vocabulary. Intermediate learners also attained Fifty reading strategies that enable them to benefit much from reading activities.

In Yun (2011) Learner proficiency was found a statistically meaning moderator to affect the treatment furnishings with Q = 15.304, p < 0.05; that is, studies with outset learners had the largest hateful result size, 0.698 while those with intermediate learners had the to the lowest degree mean effect size, 0.233. That is, showtime learners who had admission to multiple hypertext glosses most benefited from multiple glosses in reading. Abraham (2008) believes that Intermediate learners may possess deeper lexical knowledge allowing them to connect vocabulary encountered in the glosses more easily to a pre-existing semantic system and network of L2 vocabulary than beginners who are still developing their vocabulary base of operations. The results of Huang's (2010) meta-analysis showed that the vocabulary learning of language learners with low proficiency levels and vocabulary sizes may benefit more from L1 textual glosses than those who take higher proficiency levels and larger vocabulary sizes.

Li (2010) did not include proficiency measure as i the moderator analyses due to the high caste of heterogeneity in chief researchers' apply of proficiency measures. The researcher believes that the main researchers' decisions on the proficiency levels of participants were arbitrary and highly context-specific.Chiu (2013) showed that loftier school or college students (d = ane.032, p = 0.001) can do good more than from calculator-assisted language learning plan than elementary school students (d = 0.321, p = 0.004). Learners would have different learning styles and strategies. This may be due to the maturity level of high school or college students enabling more constructive use of engineering science for English language vocabulary learning. In the aforementioned vein, in Yun's (2011) report, Learner proficiency was constitute to exist a statistically significant moderator to affect the treatment effects with Q = 15.304, p < 0.05: studies with showtime learners had the largest mean effect size, 0.698 while those with intermediate learners had the least hateful effect size 0.233.

Age of the participants

Post-obit Jeon and Yamashita (2014), all participants who were at or below grade six (or age 12) were coded as Kid and the participants who were at or older than grade seven (13 or older) were coded as Adult. The present meta-analysis revealed that the effect size observed for child learners was larger than developed participants in the primary studies (d = 0.85vs. 0.79). However, the difference statistically speaking, even so, is non meaning. With this in mind, this finding should be interpreted with circumspection.

The results of Nakanishi (2015) suggest that the result of extensive reading might increase with older participants. The researcher attributes the reason to the beneficial for older learners who have learned the foreign language explicitly, as it might lead them to draw on and proceduralize their explicit knowledge. Nakanishi (2014) goes on to argue that another factor concerns the maturity of the participants in terms of their cognitive processing. As individuals age, they are able to understand and process more complex information, a development that could lead them to read more.

The influence of the age at which words are acquired on various measures of lexical processing was acknowledged (Balota et al., 2006). There have been a number of reports suggesting that age of acquisition produces a unique influence on give-and-take recognition operation above and beyond correlated variables such as word frequency Balota et al., (2006) believe that the intriguing argument here is that early on acquired words could play a special role in laying down the initial orthographic, phonological, and/or semantic representations that the remainder of the lexicon is built upon. Moreover, early on acquired words will likewise accept a much larger cumulative frequency of exposure beyond the lifetime.

Only put, from the perspective of data processing theory, differences in problem-solving abilities have been identified as 1 of the main explanations for the difference between 2nd language learning past younger and older learners (Munoz, 2006). With biological maturation, aspects such every bit rate of information processing increase regularly from childhood to machismo.

Word type

Reverse to the inquiry findings so far, the findings indicate that abstract words generated higher effect size than concrete words. We believe that one justification may be the fact that abstruse words exercise not brand extra cognitive processing demands on developed Language learners. However, information technology might be more than demanding for young children to larn abstract words than physical ones. In kickoff language (L1) acquisition, concrete words (e.g., table, paper) are typically learned prior to abstract words (e.thousand., liberty, myth) (Schwanenflugel, Akin, & Luh, 1992). Schwanenflugel et al. (1992) noted that the advantages demonstrated by physical words may stalk from the fact that concrete words have greater 'context-availability' than abstract words. Information technology is typically easier to think of a context in which concrete words announced than it is to recollect of a context in which a given abstract word appears.

Engineering science (technique) type

The last moderator variable of the nowadays report was the effect of technology (technique) used for the purpose of instruction L2 vocabulary items. It was revealed that employing "posters" generated the highest consequence size following by "reading activities and tasks". Call applied science produced the third highest consequence size. While using authentic songs for the purpose of L2 vocabulary education generated the smallest upshot size.

This finding should be interpreted with caution since only 1 study has employed "posters" for the purpose of teaching L2 vocabulary items (Cetin & Flammand, 2012). Cetin and Flammand (2012) believe that using affiche in the classroom provide support for the usefulness of the concept of cocky-directed inferential learning, raise students' sensation, arouse their interest, and will let them to take an interest in their own surroundings. The fact that "reading activities and tasks" generated higher effect size than Telephone call engineering should be verified by more longitudinal studies. We believe that there is much room for manipulation of reading tasks on the function of language teachers and paving the way for input enhancement and making the target words more salient. Every bit Fehr, et al. (2012) argued it is unrealistic to advise that computer-delivered vocabulary teaching tin be the sole vehicle for remediation of significant vocabulary deficits or L2 vocabulary learning. I possible caption for this finding is that students welcome a higher degree of autonomy in their learning and they tend to exist in control of their own learning when learning from vocabulary web sites with games (Yip & Kwan, 2006). Yip and Kwan (2006) suggested that sophisticated experiential games, such equally faux tasks, are needed, as they are more interactive and collaborative and can address cognitive issues and foster agile learning. We propose that language teachers should contain Phone call as well every bit reading activities and tasks into their syllabi to encounter learners' ongoing needs and expectations.

Suggestions for further studies

The findings of this study have applied implications for educators, Language teachers, and other scholars that advance our understanding of the mechanisms responsible for the most constructive techniques of L2 vocabulary teaching. Research must try to establish what variations in participants, too equally in treatments, will provide the virtually do good for most L2 learners. This meta-analysis highlighted important gaps in the following areas of enquiry: first, the effects of the context of L2 vocabulary pedagogy on the conquering and retention of the target words. Second, the modifying effects of groundwork knowledge, L1 and L2 distance, type of different tests and tasks, different ways of operationalizing vocabulary learning and retentiveness, duration of instruction. Future piece of work aimed at understanding the coaction among linguistic communication- learner related factors and language learning continued variables tin can illuminate our understanding of the mechanisms underlying L2 vocabulary learning and account for toll-effective l2 vocabulary learning model. We propose that dissimilar discussion types (concrete, abstruse, emotion, and pseudo word) may exist caused differently. As Altarriba and Basnight-Brown (2011) suggest that the three word types – physical, abstract, and emotion – were not acquired in the same style, even though the aforementioned basic fashion of acquisition was used to teach these words in a new language.

Time to come enquiry should examine other potential moderators, including setting (eastward.g., instructed vs. naturalistic setting), instructional variables (e.g., instructional tasks and activities), instructor orientation (e.g., beliefs and attitudes), and L2 learner variables (e.g., type of motivation, cognitive style, and learning strategies) that may influence the effectiveness of L2 vocabulary instruction.

We recommend that meta-analysts include PhD dissertations in their syntheses. By so doing, researchers volition reduce publication bias and gain access to rich descriptions of the research procedures. In addition, by including doctoral dissertations, meta-analysts will gain admission to rich information that would be able them to clarify more moderating variables that otherwise will go untouched.

Limitations

This review was intentionally limited to experimental-command studies. The strict inclusion criterion led to the relatively minor number of included studies. Although the inclusion of studies with within-subject field designs utilizing pre-postal service comparisons may contribute significantly to our understanding, the effect size statistics for these types of studies may add together to the inflation of effect sizes when pooled with studies utilizing a split control group. At that place are several issues that pose limitations and warrant consideration when evaluating the results of this study. Due to the relatively pocket-sized number of studies, intendance should be exercised every bit to the generalization of its findings. Many of the included studies take employed relatively short duration of pedagogy. In order to grasp a full picture and construct an integrative model of L2 vocabulary learning more and more longitudinal studies should be conducted and analyzed through meta-analyses and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).

Conclusion

The overall effectiveness of L2 vocabulary instruction gained through the present meta-assay was (d = 0.80) which means that L2 vocabulary handling programs accept the effect size of medium to big. The research synthesis indicates that l2 vocabulary instruction was effective and given the significance of vocabulary, L2 vocabulary teaching should be incorporated equally indispensable part of L2 syllabus. What remains unresolved, here, is the question of what factors and variables heighten L2 vocabulary development more effectively than the other variables. To gain such an insight, we telephone call for constructing L2 vocabulary models and hypotheses that provide syllabus designers and language teachers with cost-effective techniques of teaching L2 vocabulary items. We are sure that this can be achieved through application of sophisticated statistical analyses and capitalizing on the development in the field of SLA.

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Acknowledgements

We would similar to appreciate two anonymous reviewers of the journal for their invaluable comments.

Funding

No funding was available to the present study.

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Affiliations

1. Section of English language, Islamic Azad University, Bonab Branch, Bonab, Iran

   Mohammad Hossein Yousefi

2. Department of English, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

   Reza Biria

Contributions

MHY conducted the meta-analysis and reported the results. RB coded the included studies and constructed the coding sheet. MHY discussed the findings in the light of other meta-analyses. RB edited the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Mohammad Hossein Yousefi.

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Yousefi, Chiliad.H., Biria, R. The effectiveness of L2 vocabulary instruction: a meta-assay. Asian. J. Second. Strange. Lang. Educ. 3, 21 (2018). https://doi.org/x.1186/s40862-018-0062-ii

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• Received: 09 Nov 2017

• Accepted: xvi November 2018

• Published: 22 Dec 2018

• DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-018-0062-2

Keywords

• Meta-assay
• Second linguistic communication vocabulary learning
• Effect size
• Moderator variables
• Random-furnishings model
• Publication bias

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